This toolkit aims to build knowledge and capability across Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO) staff and external partners, ensuring they are equipped
to address current and future infrastructure challenges.
It has been developed by the FCDO Green Cities, Infrastructure and Energy Programme (GCIEP) during 2025.
Explore the themes and modules
The toolkit is designed to complement resources provided through the FCDO International Academy’s Energy, Climate & Environment Faculty. Each of the five themes is divided into four modules; 1 Foundation module and 3 Practitioner modules, with each addressing a range of topics, technical literature, and learning materials, supported by relevant case studies to provide practical insights.
Theme
1
Inclusive economic development in cities and regions
Infrastructure is a vital contributor to the wealth of a country, supporting jobs and livelihoods, enabling business and trade, and providing essential services for people, such as energy, transport, and water supply. These services depend on well-functioning infrastructure systems – hospitals require reliable power, whilst construction companies contribute to the economy through employment and taxation.
At the same time, infrastructure is shaped by other developments. New technologies, for instance, can positively or negatively impact infrastructure, changing the nature of industries and the way services are delivered.
For instance, former President Proboa of Indonesia prioritised infrastructure development over the past decade with significant improvements to public transport and energy now becoming apparent. Cities are major drivers of innovation and economic growth. However, the combination of rapid population growth and underinvestment in infrastructure and services has led to an increasing number of urban dwellers living in informal settlements. Cities are also contributors to and affected by climate change. Positioned at the forefront of the response to climate change, cities must be managed effectively to ensure sustainable and inclusive urban development.
Understanding regional economic development also requires examining the distribution of investment and the enactment of policies. The UK provides an example of governments attempting to rebalance economic growth by prioritising investment away from the South East aiming to distribute benefits more evenly across the country.
Engaging with stakeholders, governments, donors, the private sector, NGOs, or delivery partners requires an understanding of their priorities, the sectoral context, relevant programmes and projects, and the terminology used. Effective engagement depends on being informed about what matters to each actor and how infrastructure aligns with broader development goals.
Modules
Foundation
The role of infrastructure in economic development and growth
Introduction Infrastructure developments, such as high-speed rail, road upgrades and digital broadband expansion, can play a pivotal role in driving inclusive economic growth. By improving connectivity and reducing regional disparities, reliable infrastructure can attract both…
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Practitioner
Module 1
Module 1
The relationship between infrastructure and inclusive growth
Introduction Infrastructure is both a driver and enabler of economic development. While economic growth fuels demand for infrastructure services, the availability and quality of infrastructure, such as transport, energy, water, sanitation and…
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Practitioner
Module 2
Module 2
Opportunities in construction and maintenance
Introduction The construction sector is a significant part of any economy, particularly in many of the rapidly urbanising LMICs. In order to effectively promote economic development, it is important that practitioners working…
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Practitioner
Module 3
Module 3
Economic development in cities and regions
Introduction Economic development opportunities and risks in cities can vary as cities become more complex economic systems with larger populations. This is further complicated by the changing definition of what constitutes a…
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Theme
2
Planning, finance and project development
Implementation of infrastructure projects relies on the efficiency and effectiveness of numerous industry stakeholders, a sector shaped by longstanding practices and institutional norms. Activities are often influenced by factors that may appear unrelated but can have significant implications. For example, reforms to labour laws can alter the availability and composition of the construction workforce, affecting project timelines and cost structures. Similarly, whilst emerging technologies such as Building Information Modelling (BIM) or prefabrication may introduce opportunities for improved efficiency and safety, they also require significant investment in training, equipment and institutional capacity, alongside complex reforms to procurement practices and technical standards.
The challenges involved in delivering large-scale infrastructure projects are well illustrated by the recent case of the HS2 high-speed rail programme in the UK. As outlined in the ICE briefing paper on the cancellation of the HS2 northern leg, such projects are inherently complex, politically sensitive, and often subject to shifting priorities, making successful implementation challenging.
For cities the development of urban infrastructure depends on the careful planning, financing and delivery of projects across a range of scales, levels of government, administrative systems and sectors. These projects serve diverse populations and are delivered through a variety of implementation arrangements. Whether it is the construction of a small local school or a major international airport, successful project delivery depends on several essential stages: approved plans and budgets, technical designs, procurement processes, construction contracts, and decision-making across various organisations and responsible authorities.
A sound understanding of the full infrastructure delivery process is therefore essential. This includes information on who is initiating a project and for what purpose, who is the client, the involvement of donors or lenders, what arrangements are there for project financing, what options have been considered or could be, what effect this may have on economies and communities locally, organisationally or nationally, and how might it be delivered: through state-owned enterprises, the private sector, a combination of public and private financing or by Special Purpose Vehicles (SPVs).
Modules
Foundation
Public and private sector planning, financing and budgeting for infrastructure investment
Introduction Infrastructure is the lifeline of any economy. It plays a vital role in driving economic growth, boosting trade, and reducing poverty, particularly in low-income countries where access to basic infrastructure is…
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Practitioner
Module 1
Module 1
Strategic infrastructure planning
Introduction Before initiating any infrastructure project, practitioners must consider the strategic, upstream and early-stage issues that determine whether a project should be approved. Addressing these considerations helps decision-makers evaluate proposals, prioritise investments…
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Practitioner
Module 2
Module 2
Infrastructure financing and project development
Introduction Project preparation is fundamental to the successful delivery of infrastructure, the achievement of desired outcomes, and the generation of expected long-term societal benefits. Global infrastructure investment needs are estimated at approximately…
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Practitioner
Module 3
Module 3
Infrastructure project delivery
Introduction The delivery of major infrastructure projects often involves co-financing arrangements, frequently facilitated through Multilateral Development Banks (MDB), trust funds or funding of preliminary and supporting studies. The UK’s British International Investment…
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Theme
3
Environment, Social and Governance
Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) considerations are central to sustainable infrastructure development. Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs), including the World Bank and regional institutions such as the Asian Development Bank, use ESG frameworks to define minimum standards for environmental protection, social safeguards and governance practices. These standards have become influential benchmarks, with many other international financiers adopting similar approaches to guide project planning, financing and delivery.
For the Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO), legal compliance requirements must also be met when supporting infrastructure development. Key legal frameworks include the Equality Act 2010, particularly the Public Sector Equality Duty, the Gender Equality Act 2014, which strengthens obligations to consider gender equality in policy and programme design, and the Bribery Act 2010, which establishes the UK’s framework for preventing corruption and unethical conduct.
This theme examines ESG considerations from two complementary perspectives: compliance and enhancement:
Compliance ensures that infrastructure projects meet the minimum standards required by law and international frameworks, including environmental safeguards, social inclusion, transparency and integrity.
Enhancement highlights how infrastructure development can go beyond compliance to generate positive outcomes, strengthening environmental sustainability, promoting social equity and improving governance. Proactively addressing ESG factors contributes to more sustainable, resilient and inclusive infrastructure.
The environmental component of ESG refers to climate change, biodiversity and nature. While these topics are explored in greater depth under Theme 4, this section focuses on how infrastructure both impacts and is affected by the environment. Infrastructure projects can disrupt ecosystems: transport corridors might fragment habitats, dams may obstruct river systems, and the extraction or production of materials can degrade landscapes and contribute to carbon emissions. Environmental and Social Impact Assessments (ESIAs) play a crucial role in the early identification of environmental and social risks to inform effective mitigation strategies and the implementation of management plans.
Infrastructure also has significant social impacts. Without inclusive planning, projects may segregate communities, marginalise vulnerable groups or undermine the rights of indigenous peoples. ESG safeguards are vital to ensure social risks are identified, understood and addressed throughout the project lifecycle.
Governance considerations are equally critical. The infrastructure sector is vulnerable to inefficiencies and mismanagement, and strong ESG measures that promote accountability, transparency and ethical practice can support institutional strengthening and trust in public/private investment.
Infrastructure development also presents opportunities to generate wider benefits. For example, in Nepal, the Rural Access Programme used environmentally sound, labour-based road construction techniques. Bioengineering stabilised road embankments, created livelihoods for rural households, and formed local road-building groups that positively challenged social norms, illustrating how projects can deliver lasting environmental, social and governance gains.
Modules
Foundation
Responsible and sustainable infrastructure development
Introduction As global demand for infrastructure grows, so does the need for responsible and sustainable planning and implementation. Infrastructure can help enhance community wellbeing and contribute to inclusive growth, when designed with the…
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Practitioner
Module 1
Module 1
Environment stewardship
Introduction Environmental challenges associated with infrastructure projects vary widely depending on the sector, scale, location, duration, and stage of development. No two projects are identical; each brings its own unique environmental context…
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Practitioner
Module 2
Module 2
Maximising social value of infrastructure development
Introduction The integration of Gender Equality, Disability, and Social Inclusion (GEDSI) principles within Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) frameworks has become fundamental in shaping the future of infrastructure development. Notably, the “S”…
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Practitioner
Module 3
Module 3
Infrastructure governance
Introduction Good governance is critical to enabling good outcomes. Evidence shows that diverse factors have compromised the successful achievement of infrastructure project outcomes, including lack of clarity on the desired outcomes, insufficient…
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Theme
4
Climate, nature and low-carbon
The infrastructure sector and its development are amongst the largest emitters of global greenhouse gases (GHG) accounting for a staggering 37% of global emissions. The sector has a significant carbon footprint and as such, tackling climate change must be a central priority at country level, in global policy discussions or through targeted research and innovation programmes.
The relationship between infrastructure and climate change extends well beyond transforming the energy sector and transitioning to renewable energy sources. It encompasses a wide range of activities, such as the production processes of cement for concrete and steel, the energy requirements of transport services, which are largely reliant on fossil fuels, and coping with water stress in agriculture, to name a few examples.
Reversing environmental degradation and restoring natural ecosystems has become a priority, for example, through the restoration of wetlands or the decommissioning of dams. At the same time adopting Nature Based Solutions (NbS) can be a positive and well-established response. For example, reed bed systems have long been employed for wastewater treatment, demonstrating the practical benefits of working with nature.
By contrast, low-carbon development is a more recent imperative, requiring significant investment in research and development. This includes exploring innovative materials, such as recycled plastics for road surfaces or the use of traditional, renewable resources like bamboo in construction.
This theme covers the complex interplay between infrastructure development and climate and nature, exploring how infrastructure both impacts and is influenced by the natural environment.
Modules
Foundation
Infrastructure for a climate-resilient future
Introduction As the impacts of climate change intensify, the way we plan, deliver and manage infrastructure must adapt to meet rising risks and uncertainties. This module explores how infrastructure can support a climate-resilient…
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Practitioner
Module 1
Module 1
Infrastructure for low-carbon development, climate change and resilience
Introduction Infrastructure and urban design choices are critical to global greenhouse gas emission reduction efforts, while adaptation remains key to responding to the accelerating impacts of climate change. Some of the world’s…
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Practitioner
Module 2
Module 2
Financing mechanisms for climate compatible infrastructure development
Introduction The urgent need to align infrastructure development with climate targets is now a central policy and investment challenge globally, particularly for low- and middle-income countries. Infrastructure drives a major share of…
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Practitioner
Module 3
Module 3
Green infrastructure
Introduction Green infrastructure centres on integrating nature-based solutions, energy-efficient technologies, and sustainable design principles into infrastructure to deliver resilient, future-ready solutions to the most pressing global problems. Green infrastructure development goes beyond…
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Theme
5
Country typology and contexts: humanitarian, fragility, conflict, security and crises
Infrastructure is central to development efforts in all contexts, but the way it is planned, financed, delivered and governed becomes particularly complex in environments facing political instability, weak institutions or vulnerability to shocks. Programmatic decisions, whether at national, regional, or local levels, must consider not only what type of infrastructure is needed, but also how it is delivered, by whom and to what effect.
In humanitarian contexts, responses to natural or human-induced disasters rely heavily on infrastructure across all sectors. The immediate focus is typically on the provision of essential services such as shelter, water supply and sanitation, energy, mobility and access. Well-established protocols govern the progression from emergency response to recovery. However, the transition to long-term development is frequently a challenge. For instance, temporary settlements often become permanent, requiring early consideration of longer-term infrastructure planning and design.
Support for Fragile and Conflict-Affected States (FCAS) similarly depends on infrastructure, from basic service provision resembling humanitarian assistance to more complex, growth-stimulating interventions. In such settings, how infrastructure is conceived, planned, designed and implemented can be as significant, if not more so, than what it is built for. Infrastructure at varying scales, across multiple sectors and locations, can either reinforce a post-conflict political settlement or inadvertently undermine it. Careful context-sensitive planning is essential.
Infrastructure and security are closely intertwined. But this raises a fundamental question: whose security? National concerns may relate to regional power grids, oil pipelines or supply chain resilience. Meanwhile, at the community level, water security and access to reliable infrastructure are vital for rural villages and households. The scale and scope of infrastructure interventions must be clearly understood. Critical national infrastructure often supports both physical and cyber security. In the UK, the Centre for the Protection of National Infrastructure (CPNI) is a key reference point for managing these risks. The vulnerability of strategic infrastructure, such as the recurrent disruptions to oil pipelines in Nigeria, illustrates the complex risks that must be addressed.
This theme challenges practitioners to think critically about the risks, opportunities and ethical implications of infrastructure delivery in the most complex development environments.
Modules
Foundation
Infrastructure, peacebuilding and reconstruction
Introduction Fragile and conflict-affected states (FCS) account for nearly two-thirds of low-income countries. Conflicts can affect the stability of an entire region and hinder progress towards sustainable and inclusive growth. Infrastructure can be…
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Practitioner
Module 1
Module 1
Approaches to infrastructure in fragile conflict-prone contexts
Introduction Designing, financing and delivering infrastructure in fragile and conflict-affected settings presents an array of unique challenges and opportunities. In environments marked by political instability, weak institutions and recurrent shocks, infrastructure programmes…
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Practitioner
Module 2
Module 2
Country typology and contexts
Introduction Effectively developing and delivering sustainable, resilient infrastructure demands sensitivity to the diversity of national circumstances and typologies. Infrastructure strategies cannot be universal, as the economic trajectory, regional relationships and past experiences…
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Practitioner
Module 3
Module 3
Crises, risks and emergencies
Introduction In fragile, conflict-affected or hazard-prone environments, shocks routinely undermine essential services and erode hard-won development gains. As the frequency and severity of disasters climb globally the direct physical impact on roads,…
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